Richard Dawkins and John Krebs argued that although in some circumstances it might be appropriate to describe animal signals as transferring information, in many other, perhaps most, cases there would be such a conflict of interest between signaller and receiver that it is more accurate to describe the signaller as attempting to ‘manipulate’ the receiver rather than just inform it. For example, an angler fish that dangles a worm-like bit of skin in front of a small fish and catches it because the smaller fish snaps at the ‘worm’ can certainly be said to have carried out a successful manipulation of its prey. In this case, if information has been transferred, it is most definitely false. * dangle: 매달다

① Are Smaller Fishes Smarter? 

② Talking Animals: Fact or Myth? 

③ Cooperation in the Animal World 

④ Manipulation: Tricking the Signaller 

⑤ Animal Messages: Not What They Seem